The Role of Leaders in Criminal Justice Essay Example for Free

The Role of Leaders in Criminal Justice Essay Criminal equity is a framework wherein enactments and associations are sanctioned to keep up social request and rebuff violators of the law. It is a field of criminology including the investigation of wrongdoing including causes, criminal conduct and different parts of it (Nuocleous, 2004, pp 93-94). It is made out of law authorization, courts and amendments. Albeit criminal equity is slanted more into the administrative body, pioneers in its job in administration, contributes significantly in counteraction of wrongdoing. Pioneers ought to be engaged so as to manage equity to forestall wrongdoing (Tshehla, 2005, p 1). In any case, given this significant job of pioneers in wrongdoing anticipation, there are authoritative clashes between or among regions or among the individuals themselves. A case of this is the contention that typically emerges between a network head and his neighborhood councilor for example. This typically happens on account of the covering jobs without solid rules that will recognize the undertakings that one must attempt. Along these lines, the two gatherings consider each to be as a steady obstacle in attempted their employments. This likewise principally makes pioneers be reluctant in getting themselves engaged with the operational and specialized side of wrongdoing avoidance (Tshehla, 2005, pp 3-6). Given the significance of the two players in the viability of wrongdoing counteraction, pioneers and their administrative partners ought to have an away from of the jobs that they are should play to have the option to effectively oblige the requirements of the network that they are serving. Correspondence among pioneers, their administrative partners and the police division should most importantly be given sufficient significance to become compelling law implementers. References: Neocleous, Mark (2004). Manufacturing Social Order: A Critical History of Police Power. London: Pluto Press, ISBN. Tshehla, Boyane. 2005. Customary leaders’ job in equity and wrongdoing avoidance. Distributed for Institute for Security Studies.

The Basic Informational Macromolecules Biology Essay

The Basic Informational Macromolecules Biology Essay Nucleic acids are the fundamental instructive macromolecules that adds to the most basic trademark properties of living framework, multiplication and hereditary conttrols. Lower and higher atomic load of nucleic acids are used in metabolic and synergist responses separately. DNA(deoxyribonucleic corrosive) and RNA(ribonucleic corrosive) are nucleic corrosive of polymers made out of nitrogenous base either a twofold ring of purines and single ring of pyrimidine which is additionally associated with the phosphorylated sugar to make up the nucleotides.The sugar connected with base without phosphate bunch is called nucleoside.The DNA atom has sugar 2-deoxyribose and RNA particle has ribose and each spine of DNA or RNA chain are connected by covalent phosphodiester bond between 5and 3carbons of two sugars either from 5>3 or 3>5 headings. Phosphate bunches are appended toward the finish of the sugar at 5-carbon and at the 3end ,the hydroxyl bunch is added.Most likely all common DNA or RNA polymer stretch out toward a path of 5to 3end direction.The structures that combine the nulceotides in DNA and RNA are called phosphodiester bonds due the nearness of phosphoric corrosive linkage between the two sugars(fig.1) Fig.1 RNA nucleotides connected by phosphodiester bonds between 3-OH and 5-C. (RNA structure,n.d) Structures of DNA DNA(deoxyrinucleic acid)is the straight of nucleic acids which is made out of four diverse structure squares of nucleotides and is absence of one oxygen molecule at carbon2(fig.2) and accordingly it is named as deoxyribose sugar. Fig.2 Structure of DNA. (DNA Structure,n.d) DNA is ordinarily found in nucleous and researcher called Erwin Chargaff found that DNA has four nucleotide bases to be specific pyrimidine(cytosine and thymine)and purine(adenine and guanine) (fig.3) Purines: a)  â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â Adenine Aâ â â â â â â Guanine Gâ Pyrimidines: b)  â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â Thymine T Cytosine Câ Fig.3.Structure of DNA bases. (DNA and RNA Structures,n.d) The aggregate sum of pyrimidine nucleotide bases thymine+cytosine is consistently equivalent to the aggregate sum of purine nucleotide bases adenine+guanine.The measure of thymine is consistently equivalent to the measure of adenine(A=T)and the measure of cytosine is consistently equivalent to the measure of guanine(G ºC).But the measure of adenine +thymine isn't really equivalent to the measure of guanine+cytosine. ( Gupta ,P.K., 2000) The Double Helix Structure By the investigation of x-beam diffration, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkens recommended that DNA has a helical structure with a measurement of 20A and 34A separation in the helix(fig.4a). DNA comprises of two helix which the two chains are snaked around a similar pivot to frame a right-gave helix and they can be isolated from each other just by uncoiling. The foundation of altertnating deoxyribose and phosphate bunches are put outside the helix confronting the encompassing water(hydrophilic) though the bases are inside the helix(hydrophobic) and are set in a plane at right point to the long axis.The right-gave DNA structures are called B-DNA having 3.4A separation between the two base sets and it has 10 base sets in each turn. DNA can likewise exist as left-gave and since left-gave DNA follow a crisscross way,it is called as Z-DNA.The principle distinction between Z-DNA and B-DNA is that in Z-DNA,one complete helix has 12 base sets for each turn while B-DNA has just 10 base sets for every turn. (Gupta,P.K., 2000) Fig.4)a) Structure of twofold helix, b) DNA structure demonstrating equal and hostile to resemble, c) twofold helix indicating minor and significant notches. (DNA Structures,n.d) In twofold helix,the two strands of DNA runs inverse in bearing ie,5> 3and 3> 5 which implies the two strands ought to be equal or against corresponding to make the balanced out structure and hold the two polynucleotides together.There is a communication of base-pair between the adenine on one strand and a thymine on the other(A=T) and also among cytosine and guanine (G ºC (fig.4b) with hydrogen security two and three rrespectively.These matching of this two strands makes minor and significant furrows on the surfaces of twofold helix(fig.4c) . In DNA twofold helix,one strand go about as parent strand and the other new strand as layout which orchestrate corresponding little girl strands(fig.5).The twofold helix is hold together by H-holding between correlative base combines and base stacking collaboration. (Voet,D. Et al Fig.5 DNA replication. Each strand of a parental DNA goes about as a format for the combination of a corresponding little girl strand. (Voet,D. et al,2006) Structure of RNA RNA(ribonucleic corrosive) is the second kind of nucleic corrosive found in throuhtout the cell. In the event of RNA , it has a sugar and a - OH bunch at 2 carbon atom(fig.6). Fig.6 Structure of ribose. (RNA Structure,n.d) Likewise, RNA has additionally four nucleotide bases as purine and pyrimidine(fig.7) aside from the thymine is supplanted by uracil in pyrimidine. Purines:  â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â Adenine Aâ â â â â â â Guanine Gâ Pyrimidines:  â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â Uracil Uâ â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â Cytosine Câ Fig.7 Structures of RNA bases. (RNA and DNA Structures,n.d) Despite the fact that RNA is single - abandoned structure ,when RNA overlay back on itself ,by some coincidence or intermittent base blending and hydrogen holding ,it frames a portion of a matched helical structure (fig.8) which brings about three dimensional structure and they are copmplex and one of a kind. They structure intra-strand base sets from self corresponding area along the chain. Fig.8 Base matching inside a solitary strand of RNA indicating a potential collapsed structure. (RNA Structure,n.d) The data from RNA decides the protein amalgamation through the arrangement of interpretation which includes three kinds of RNA atoms to perform various capacities: 1)Messenger RNA(mRNA)Structure Delivery person RNA(mRNA) is a direct arrangement of amino corrosive in polypeptide chain and has longer chain than the perusing outline that must be translated.To start and end interpretation , explicit beginning and stop codons are required. Generally mRNAs has start (initiator) codons AUG that can be filled in as methionine codon at 5carbon.. Once in a while GUG and CUG can alsobe utilized as initiator codon in a portion of the bacterial and eukaryotic mRNA individually. GUG codes for valine and CUG for leucine to start a protein chain. The stop codon are UAA, UGA and UAG and don't code for any amino corrosive. The stop codon shows that interpretation is to be ended and the ribosome must be discharged polypeptide item. The grouping of start and stop codon are known as an understanding edge. Codon having covering data, mRNA can be meant diverse understanding edges and shaped distinctive polypeptides(fig.9). Each hereditary code determines diverse amino acids and once in a while uno rdinary coding happens. ( Lodish, etal , 1986) Edge 1 5㠢†Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ GCU UGU UUA CGA AUU A à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ mRNA à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ Ala Cys Leu Arg Ile à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ polypeptide 1 Edge 2 5㠢†Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ G CUU GUU UAC GAA UUA à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ mRNA à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ Leu Val Tyr Glu Leu à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã£ ¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â€š ¬ polypeptide 2 Figure 9; Multiple perusing outlines in a mRNA succession ( Lodish , etal , 1986) 2)Transfer RNA(tRNA) Structure Move RNA(tRNA) is a connector particle that fill in as an extension among mRNA and the amino acids prompting the Polypeptide chain.tRNA exists in primary,secondary and tertiary structure. A tRNA atom is artificially connected to amino acids through a bond framing an aminoacyl-tRNA. The general structure of tRNA is spoken to by Cloverleaf model(fig.10). The anticodon at the base is correlative to the mRNA codon with the blending of base to it. Because of the nearness of mRNA codon and tRNA anticodon, base-blending is in hostile to resemble directions.Amino acids are joined to the acceptor stem at the 3 end having grouping CCA and distends past the 5 end. The dihydrouracil loop(D loop)contained consistently uracil base and TCG circle has invariant succession of bases.Variable circle has variety in the two nucleotides organization and long. (Lodish,et al,1986) Fig.10. Structure of tRNA. (RNA-Ribonucleic acid,n.d) 3)Ribosome RNA(rRNA) Sructures Ribosome RNA(rRNA) conveys ribosome particles and comprises of one little and one enormous subunit ribosome and protein. The rRNA is the biggest structure among the RNAs. Every one of the subunits made out of one to three rRNA s types and the same number of as protein parts. Contrasting with prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells are bigger and more particles while the eukaryotes has 40s and 60s with 80s for complete ribosome. Elements of DNA †¢ DNA fill in as a capacity materials for hereditary data in every living cell. †¢ Due to the twofold helical structure,DNA gives greater solidness putting away progressively hereditary data since the twofold bond required more power to separate the structures . †¢ DNA is building square of the protein amalgamation which takes by the procedure of Central Dogma relationship.Genetic data from the DNA is interpreted to mRNA conveying the hereditary codon and later meant the polypeptide chain. †¢ DNA accommodates long haul stockpiling of hereditary data because of the nearness of deoxyribose sugar at 2carbon,thus forestalling the arrangement of cyclic phosphate ester since hydrogen can't hydrolysis the phosphodiester bond, while 2hydroxyl gathering in RNA go about as a nucleophile assaulting the phosphodiester bond and results in less effectiveness of putting away infor

Expanding your business to China Essay Example for Free

Growing your business to China Essay There are numerous focal points to growing your business to China. In addition to the fact that china is viewed as perhaps the biggest economy on the planet, it likewise has an immense developing business sector that is as yet developing (Startup Overseas). Despite the fact that China has grasped numerous Western Business morals and practices, there are as yet various culturally diverse contrasts that can make it hard to prevail without adequate research and information on the way of life. Instances of these culturally diverse contrasts incorporate the Chinese’ mentality toward work and work environment, the work laws, and how Chinese organizations team up with different associations. More contrasts incorporate how we market and sell an item, and how evaluating varies between our two nations. Maybe the most significant contrasts are those of moral positions, for example, kid work and sexism. A Chinese worker’s mentality toward the activity and the work environment relies upon what position they have in an association. China is viewed as a collectivist society, which implies most of individuals inside the general public act in light of a legitimate concern for the gathering and not really themselves (Geert Hofstede, 2010). The United States is viewed as an individualistic culture and accentuates the significance of the person. This likewise applies to the manner in which these nations work together. A collectivist business may have a group of laborers adding to fulfill all the clients, though an individualistic business may have a few individual delegates who each have their own customer list. Another distinction in the work environment is the means by which enormous an organization’s Power Distance is. Force separation is the acknowledgment that all people in the general public are not equivalent (Geert Hofstede, 2010). China has a huge force separation, which implies its’ laborers acknowledge the way that there is a chain of command inside the association, and they know their place inside that association. They anticipate that power inside the business should be conveyed inconsistent. The United States has a lower Power Distance acknowledgment, which implies that laborers don’t acknowledge that force is dispersed inconsistent inside the association, and they hope to be treated as equivalents to even the individuals in the most noteworthy places of the business. The Chinese likewise acknowledge that dynamic originates from the top, though in the U.S., everybody needs their recommendation and supposition to be heard, and they don't generally acknowledge choices that are made inside the association. Theâ differences among Chinese and U.S. work laws are inconspicuous, yet worth referencing. In China, an ordinary working week is 44 hours, with a limit of 48 hours (just 4 hours of additional time is distributed). In the U.S., a typical working week is 40 hours, with extra time paid on any hours worked over that 40. Maternity surrender is over to 3 months paid in China. In the U.S., Maternity surrender is over to a year unpaid (at the company’s carefulness). Shockingly, ladies in China make 80.5% of what men similarly situated make, though in the U.S., ladies just make 70% of what men make similarly situated (Guo). In China, organizations will in general put an accentuation on close to home connections between colleagues. An underlying conference will comprise of becoming more acquainted with the character and ways of life of the one you are going into a relationship with (Graf). Chinese entrepreneurs will need a dedicated fellowship while thinking about affiliations. This arrangement of informal communities and compelling connections that encourage business and different dealings is called guanxi (Mah, 2012). In the United States, proprietors of a business just as the laborers inside that association endeavor to keep their own and expert lives extraordinary. In spite of the fact that a few accomplices wind up being companions, and numerous laborers fabricate fellowships outside of the working environment, it isn't the aim toward the beginning of a business relationship. Blessing giving is likewise a huge social contrast. In the United States, if a blessing is given toward the beginning of a conference, or the beginning of an affiliation, it tends to be viewed as pay off or an approach to cause organizations to feel committed in cooperating. Chinese associations are significantly more tolerating of endowments albeit certain decorums must be followed all together for the blessing to be given in accordance with some basic honesty (Culture Crossing Guide). For instance, blessings must be pleasantly wrapped and may not be opened immediately except if provoked to do as such. Additionally, don't give any blessings, for example, timekeepers, blossoms, or cutting instruments as it is viewed as ill bred. Arrangement style is a significant contrast between the United States and China. In China, social setting, individual relations, and non-verbal conduct are significant in arrangement. There are normally numerous individuals from theâ company who go to the gathering to examine any subjects that need arrangement. Americans esteem legitimate agreements and archives over close to home connections, and don't take as much confidence in non-verbal communication. American organizations generally just send a couple of individuals do the haggling for the benefit of the whole organization. For the motivations behind this paper, let us expect that an American Company has seen extraordinary accomplishment with its toy item. This organization is hoping to grow its business to China. There is generally an interest for toys in any nation and in China, 17.1% (about 223 million) of the nation’s populace is under 14 years of age (Central Intelligence Agency). Research likewise shows that the all out retail deals of toys in China have expanded by 14.2% since 2010 (HKTDC Research, 2014). The Design of this toy would need to be cautiously reexamined, especially on the off chance that it is a doll or Barbie type toy. The doll would need to be remanufactured to suit the requirements of the kids in China. Skin Color, Clothing, and embellishments would all should be updated. For instance, albeit most young lady planned American Dolls don pink, pink is viewed as a sexually unbiased shading in China. The shading white is additionally connected with death and grieving, so any â€Å"wedding dress† dolls would should be recolored to the conventional Chinese shade of red (KaiWen, 2010). The apparel of the doll would most likely need to turn out to be progressively humble. In seeing Chinese dolls, most are wearing Geisha style robes. The United States dolls will in general show more â€Å"skin.† The bundling of the doll would likewise must be meant Chinese. The organization would likewise need to maintain a strategic distance from any imagery that may outrage Chinese guardians or even the administration, for example, any American gear, similar to the banner, or anything with a strict setting, similar to a cross. Envision the cost of this toy is $5.00. The estimation of a $1.00 is equivalent to 117.78 ( ¥). That would imply that the conversion scale on the toy would be $588.90. In any case, with the Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) factor, we realize that China’s showcase swapping scale is .6 (World Bank, International Comparison Program Database, 2014). This implies China would really pay 60% of what the United States would pay for the toy. The cost of the toy would beâ 353.34  ¥. This cost could be balanced relying upon rivalry in the Chinese market. The American organization would likewise need to build the cost dependent on sending out expenses. A deal cost, or limited cost, in China is additionally not the same as what a deal cost would be considered in the United States. In the U.S., if an item is on special, the promotion may state â€Å"10% off.† In China, they publicize the level of the value that you would pay for, in this model â€Å"90%† (Tyson, 2014). Great occasions for deals would associate with National Chinese Holidays, for example, the Chinese New Year (Spring Festival), May Day, or the Mid-Autumn Festival. A few deals channels can be utilized to advance an item in China. Customary roads incorporate significant malls, claim to fame stores, and establishment chains. There is additionally the web stage and numerous locales, for example, Amazon or Baby.tmall.com. Probably the most ideal approaches to break into the toy advertise in China is to have the toy incorporate instructive or mechanical viewpoints. This would help widen the accessible channels of the toys to incorporate exhibition halls, zoos, and electronic stores. This is totally different from the United States, who will in general elevate and market to the various sexual orientations. Most American toys are either for young ladies or for young men; there aren’t a lot of sexually unbiased toys. Much the same as in the United States, China has import and exchange guidelines. A portion of these guidelines incorporate import investigation (Regulations for the Administration of Inspection of Toy Imports and Exports), regard for the potential risk of toys, China Compulsory Certification (CCC), and measures, for example, extravagant toy fillings ought to be even and of a proper delicate quality with no hard items inside. It is additionally significant the Standardization Law of the People’s Republic of China, where four degrees of gauges are specified: national measures, industry principles, neighborhood guidelines, and undertaking norms. This organization should stick to these norm and guidelines so as to trade the toys from the United States to China. Another choice for the organization is open a plant in China, or utilize a previous Chinese toy production line to fabricate the toys and sell/convey locally. So as to arrive at the more ruralâ areas of China, this organization should seriously mull over creation an arrangement with a Chinese organization that as of now circulates to those modest communities and country regions. On the off chance that this organization decides to open a manufacturing plant in China, or use a prior industrial facility, it should manage moral issues, for example, kid work, and sexism. Kid work has been a generally dubious issue for a long time. The PRC Law on the Protection of Minors was first passed in 1991, and the recently reconsidered Minors Protection Law entered the power in 2007. Numerous International rights reports have additionally been actualized by the UN (Library of Congress). Alth

Top Tips to Improve Your Outstanding College Essays

Top Tips to Improve Your Outstanding College EssaysThe topic of outstanding college essays has always been on the top of many teachers and professors' lists. It is one of the most popular writing assignments among high school and college students, and a big part of their projects. Although the writing assignment can get tiresome for many students, there are ways to make it easier for them. Here are some great tips to help improve your work.Use formal terminology - students who are struggling will find it easier to work on essays about specific subjects. Informal and casual terms usually confuse them, so they are much better off using formal terms when talking about matters that they are familiar with. Try not to use terms that are too informal, and use formal or more formal ones only when appropriate. For example, say 'part-time' instead of 'temporary' when it comes to a job situation.Have good grammar skills - it is not good enough to be able to write decent sentences, but you need to have good grammar skills as well. If you are not using the right type of English, it will take you forever to edit your essay. In fact, grammar mistakes will make it very difficult for the reader to understand what you wrote. The wrong word to use or sentence structure can also be an issue.Ask for help - people who are looking for help to improve on certain topics are those who need it the most. A teacher, adviser, or advisor is usually more willing to help a student with their assignments than someone who is working alone. And they are usually more experienced at helping others get through assignments.Use the proper tone of voice - writing essays that sound too formal or have a tone that sounds too academic will not be received by the reader. Use a tone that is neutral. This can also help with tone and rhythm. For example, a 'thank you' should be said slowly and in a loud voice, not a soft voice that is hard to hear. Having a very specific tone of voice can also make it easier t o understand what you are trying to convey.Do not stress out - after writing an essay on a particular subject, many students can get stressed out. They will start to think that their assignment is going to be harder than it really is. Try to keep a positive attitude when doing your assignments. All you need to do is relax and look at it as a way to help yourself get through the process.Proofread - proofreading is important to ensure that you do not make any spelling or punctuation errors. You should do a couple of reviews with other people before you go to print. It is important to catch these errors before they can cause an issue.Taking this excellent course will help you improve your grades and make you a better writer. You should check out this tutorial today to help you learn the tricks of the trade. Good luck!

Financial Panics of the 19th Century

Identify and assess the significance of three factors that contributed to American westward movement Essay

This could be excused as ‘the grass is consistently greener’. There were anyway various components included. These incorporated the quest for valuable metal, the chance of getting land and the extension of the railroads. Albeit typically depicted as a move west, it was somewhat additionally a move south as on account of those looking for gold and silver in Californian mines because of the unplanned finding of gold by James Marshall in 1848 as portrayed by Steve Weigand on the website page ‘The California Gold Rush, a period recalled. Land was viewed as a type of riches and most of the individuals who moved to America did as such in the expectation of getting area to cultivate. Under British guideline Europeans had been confined in their settlement to the region east of the Appalachians, yet after the Revolutionary War this restraint was expelled thus individuals gushed south and west. Afterward, with the happening to the railroads, advertises in the north could be served from further west. This permitted the extraordinary development of urban areas, for example, New York and Chicago. see more:which was a factor that prompted the logical insurgency In the years preceding the American Civil War in the 1860’s the railroads had incorporated up with a significant system serving the eastern states, yet a while later they step by step spread over the remainder of the nation. This implied individuals no longer needed to spend numerous long stretches of hardship so as to arrive at their goal thus the small townships previously settled by before pioneers were immediately extended new comers looking for themselves and their families a superior life. The Irish potato starvation of the 1840’s as portrayed on the History Place page, ‘The Blight Begins’ prompted numerous outsiders from that nation, the greater part would not have been city people, so it is maybe normal that some moved toward the western states where they saw probably some expectation for their future, much the same as the various vagrants.

PA School Prerequisites Admissions Directors Answer Your Burning Questions

As you probably know by now, if you want to get into PA school you must complete the necessary prerequisite coursework. I have discussed this in detail in a previous postPrerequisite Coursework: How to Design the Perfect Pre-PA School Curriculum. Today, we are going a step further by giving you answers to some of the most common PA school prerequisite questions. And the best part is: These answers are directly from the PA school admissions committee themselves. PA School Prerequisite QA Do You Look Down On Community College Prerequisite Coursework? Do PA School Prerequisite Classes Expire? Can I Apply With Coursework in Progress? Do My Prerequisite Courses Fulfill The Requirements? Do You Accept Online Prerequisite Coursework? Is There a Minimum GPA for Prerequisite Coursework? Do You Accept Prerequisite Courses Completed at Different Colleges? Is Lab Required? How About Repeat Courses? Graduate Or Undergraduate Courses? Dropped Courses? The following are questions asked by pre-PAs as part of the annual Physician Assistant Education Association (PAEA) forum where ADCOMs from 30 top PA schools come together for a weekend and answer your questions. Schools such as Duke, Butler, Penn State College of Medicine, Yale, and Case Western Reserve (to name just a few). Below you will find the question in bold with the answer given by the ADCOM (admissions committee) in blockquote. I have provided a summary of recommendations in yellow at the end of each section as well as an overall summary at the end of this post. Got more questions or some helpful advice? Please let us know in the comments section. 1. Do You Look Down On Community College Prerequisite Coursework? What is your take on applicants that take only one required course at a county college? One or two community college courses is fine. The only time it becomes a concern is if ALL of your science or prereqs come from a community college, or there are multiple community colleges you have attended.- A.T. Still University How do you view community college classes? Say if I take a prerequisite course at a community college, but it was a simple general education class such as sociology? Community college classes are fine. We know many people do not have the resources to go back and take pre-reqs at four-year schools - Duke University I took all my science classes at community college. Will that be a problem? Having all of your science from a community college will be a weakness on your application. If you have some science courses at a 4-year university that will help, but having completed all your science classes at CC will be a negative factor. - A.T. Still University If I do plan to retake some courses, does it matter if it's at a local college or university? I can take some at the university level but others I can only retake at the college level because of financial hardship You can complete coursework at any regionally accredited institution. This can include a community college or online as well. - Butler University So long as the courses are completed at a regionally accredited institution, they will satisfy. It does not matter to us if they are from community college or a four year institution. We are aware of the significant costs for applicants and students alike and we encourage you to complete them in a way that is cost-effective and works for you. - Penn State College of Medicine I took all of my prerequisites at the community college level. Would you suggest re-taking any at a University or would it be better to put my focus into improving other areas of my application such as patient care? How much of a negative impact does this hold? My GPA is strong, and I have significant volunteer hours. In your case, I would not suggest retaking the courses. Yes, focus on your strengths so that you can offset the community college science courses. If you have an opportunity to take an upper-level science course at a 4-year university, you might consider that, but focus on the strong aspects of your application. It's not a one-strike and you are done - the whole process is flexible and holistic. - A.T. Still University I had a school tell me that because I took my last few courses at a community college that was held against me and that I was 3 of their scoring points away from an interview. How do you guys feel about that? Upper division prerequisite requirements can be completed at a four-year institution, community college, or online courses from regionally accredited institutions. We do not look down on community college coursework. It will be factored in the same way - Penn State College of Medicine Does your PA program accept prerequisites from Tri counties community college? Yes, we will accept prerequisites from Tri C or other community colleges. - Case Western Reserve Summary: Some schools do care if all of your prerequisites courses are taken at a community college, but the vast majority don't. If you can, it is best to research your preferred PA school's website and contact the program admission team. 2. Do PA School Prerequisite Classes Expire? I would like to know if the prereq classes taken in undergrad in 2003 would be considered in factoring GPA or should I retake them. I can try to retake some at a university, but because of my financial situation, I can only afford community college courses. Will this be ok? Thanks Courses you have taken do not expire for us. We will use your coursework from 2003 in our transcript review to determine which prerequisites are fulfilled. - Yale University I completed my science classes in 2008, should I retake them? If you've been working in healthcare full-time since graduating we would waive that requirement - Penn State College of Medicine Do you accept a three-credit Humanities course if it was taken six years ago in 2011? Yes, we will accept humanities credits that are older than 5 years. Only science credits must be taken within 5 years. - Touro University My question is whether or not classes taken during undergrad "expire?" I graduated with a B.S in Biology in 2013 but started college in 2006. I was in the Air Force, so my undergrad took a long time to complete. As it stands, I am currently living as an Air Force dependent in Germany with my spouse while they finish their 4-year tour. I will not be applying to PA school for another three years. I was wondering since I will have been out of school for six years when I apply, will this hurt my application? I don't know if the time since my classes were taken, will work against me? The courses that "time out" are Anatomy and Physiology. That course series must be completed within 5 years of matriculation so you may need to refresh those courses. - Carroll University I am a medical graduate from India applying for PA program. When you talk about GPA, is it the GPA of the prerequisite courses or the bachelor's degree too? I received my bachelors in 1995 and have completed the prerequisites in the past two years. So which one counts more towards selection process? The prereqs which must be completed within 10 years of applying count towards the selection process so we wouldn't look at your 1995 coursework at all actually. - Case Western Reserve I have a biology degree but graduated in 2002, are there any courses that your program wants to be more recent? All of the prerequisites have to be completed within 10 years of applying to our program. - Case Western Reserve Do classes have an expiration date? Also, can I repeat some of the undergrad courses at a community college? College credits do not expire. I only suggest retaking if you did very poorly in a prereq. Some students will take refresher courses or upper-level science to get back into "student mode" but remember, community college credits are not as rigorous as 4-year university credits. - A.T. Still University I graduated with a BS in 2011, taking some core science classes in 2007. Since graduating, I have been working as a certified medical assistant and now working with CHC on the central coast. Would I need to retake the core classes? No need to retake the prereqs. Having them completed more than 5 years ago is not ideal, but you have more recent coursework and clinical/volunteering to make up for it. So I suggest not worrying about retaking any courses unless you earned a C or below in one. - A.T. Still University Summary: There is a surprisingly large amount of variation here between schools. Some schools do not have an expiration date on courses while others require all course be completed within a 10-year window and some require 5-year's for certain courses and no expiration on others. This could open (or close) a lot of doors depending on when you completed your prerequisite coursework. Take home message: Do your research before you apply! 3. Can I Apply With Coursework in Progress? I had taken Anatomy and Physiology (separate and both with their respective labs) over seven years ago. I will be retaking these courses next spring. Can I still apply during the upcoming cycle? Yes, you can apply with coursework in progress, you would list it as either in progress or planned on the application. - A.T. Still University Can I take biochemistry after submitting my application? If so, does not having taken this class reflect negatively on my application? You can have three outstanding prerequisites at the time of application. You must show your plan to complete the courses prior to entering the program. It will not reflect poorly if you have not yet completed biochemistry - Butler University Genetics is the only prerequisite I have not taken. Could my application still be reviewed considering I have additional classes that offer a more holistic approach to the medical field? You can apply with one outstanding prerequisite (Genetics), however, if accepted you will need to prove you took the course by December 31st and passed with a B or better. - Yale University Many programs only allow non-science courses to be "in progress." Should I be worried that my Biochem will still be in progress when I apply? Should I wait to apply? No more than two prerequisites can be outstanding at the time of application and they need to be done by the fall of the application year. - Case Western Reserve Summary: The best bet is to try to have all your prerequisite coursework completed before you apply. If not, you better check with the PA program ADCOM, that being said, most schools allow one or two prerequisite courses to be outstanding at the time of application. 4. Do My Prerequisite Courses Fulfill The Requirements? What do you accept for the human anatomy prerequisites? I attended Penn State University, where I have taken Biology 129, titled Mammalian Anatomy. I have also taken Biology 497, a human cadaver dissection course and I use the dissected cadavers to teach my section of the Biology 129 lab. So, the Biology 129 course is called Mammalian Anatomy, but it is primarily human-focused. Will these courses be sufficient for the human anatomy prerequisite? And if so, should I match both of them on the CASPA application? Sometimes those need approval by our PA Chair on a case by case basis so if you have a question about a particular class I would email the chair and include a complete course description (and syllabus if you have it) so we can run that by the chair to get approval for you. - A.T. Still University I have a question about some wording on your website concerning your prerequisite coursework. Per your website, the prerequisite biology classes must be "at or above the 200 level." I have completed two combined anatomy and physiology courses with labs which are on par with what is usually required to apply. However, at my school, these were not listed as being at the "200 level". Could you give any more information on this pre-requisite expectation? We will look at your transcripts and if your courses are listed at the 200 level or higher in a biology related course then the course will count as fulfilling a prerequisite. - Butler University Is it possible to substitute organic chemistry with biochemistry for the prerequisites? We are not able to substitute Biochem for Organic Chem - Duke University For the 2-semester psychology requirement, will neuroscience count? It is listed under the psychology department at my undergraduate university. Neuroscience offered through your psychology departement will be accepted as one of the two psychology prereqs. - Carroll University I was wondering if students that are applying would be able to designate which courses they would like used as prerequisites such as the choice between organic chemistry and biochemistry. Will the course with a higher grade automatically be used? When you are asked to complete our secondary application, you will identify which courses you believe best satisfy our pre-requisites. We then verify these courses across your entire transcript. So my advice would be to best align your course with our course not necessarily take a course less appropriate just because it received a higher grade. As for OChem vs. Biochem - it absolutely is your choice - we require either - or....not both.- Penn State College of Medicine Could you please let me know the equivalent courses for biochemistry and organic chemistry or the course numbers? The program does not endorse any one course or university/college at which to take prerequisite courses. We do accept either undergraduate or graduate level courses for biochem and organic but they must be separate courses and they must be specific to biochem and organic, not overview courses that combine lots of different topics. - Case Western Reserve What are your thoughts on having endocrinology as an upper-level bio class compared to some of the other upper-level bio courses? While endocrinology is not a prerequisite for Yale, certainly any upper-level biology courses will only help enhance your application and prepare you for a rigorous curriculum in a PA Program. - Yale University Summary:Tap into your college and university academic advisor and make a plan. When I was in college I followed a pre-med track through my junior year until I discovered PA school. I met with my academic advisor who suggested I pursue a Zoology degree so that I could meet my genetics, microbiology, and anatomy/physiology prerequisites. I suggest you create a spreadsheet (here is one I have started for you) and compare prerequisite coursework across programs. When you meet with your advisor you can formulate your attack plan. If there are uncertainties, as I will say a million times, contact a couple PA programs and fill the gaps with knowledge! 5. Do You Accept Online Prerequisite Coursework? I live in a small town where there is a private university and a community college. I still need to take couple prereqs and was thinking of taking them through UNE online courses, because the school in my town is so much more expensive than UNE. Would the UNE online courses be accepted as a prereq? Online courses count as long as they are taken at a regionally accredited institution - Duke University Can we take prerequisite courses online and attached lab on the campus? Our requirement is that all prerequisite courses with labs must be taken "on ground." - Case Western Reserve Summary: Be careful with online courses, while many schools accept online classes, some school require that courses be taken on site. Again best to check before you decide to pursue an online degree. 6. Is There a Minimum GPA for Prerequisite Coursework? If I have a C in one of my prerequisites, but my overall prerequisite GPA is a B would you suggest I retake that course? It is difficult to say if you should retake the prerequisite, certainly the higher the better for your prerequisite GPA, so it may be to your benefit. - Yale University So, your guys' pre-requisite courses do not necessarily expire, but all prereqs must be met with a grade of a B? The prerequisites do not have a grade minimum, but we calculate an overall prerequisite GPA. If you are admitted to the program and have one outstanding course, you must complete the course by December 31st and earn a grade of B or better. - Yale University Do you require all prereqs to be completed with a B or higher, or does your cumulative GPA just need to be a 3.0 or higher? Your cumulative needs to be a 3.0 or higher. - Case Western Reserve Summary: GPA requirements are the bane of many well-intended pre-PAs existences. It was definitely mine, and it is the one area where schools vary across the spectrum on requirements. I suggest you use a combination of tools starting with my paschoolfinder.com PA program match tool (where you can sort schools by overall and science GPA requirements) along with the PAEA Program Directory. Unless you have an overall and science GPA of 3.4 it is best to do your homework. If you are applying with a low GPA read this post to see what the ADCOMs have to say. 7. Do You Accept Prerequisite Courses Completed at Different Colleges? I took Anatomy and Physiology 1 at one school and Anatomy and Physiology 2 at another. Will this affect my application? No this does not impact your application from our standpoint - Penn State College of Medicine Summary: Most schools just want to see that you have completed your prerequisites and maintained a relatively high standard. Having completed your prerequisites at different schools isn't a big deal. If you have been to five different colleges in four years you may have some explaining to do but otherwise, in the words of Bobby McFerrin "Don't Worry Be Happy. " 8. Is Lab Required? I noticed one of the prereqs is a physiology with a lab. How important is having this lab requirement? I have taken physiology without a lab and multiple anatomy classes with labs. I am also having trouble finding physiology lab classes to take separately. Physiology lab is indeed a basic pre-requisite. We are strict about that. - Case Western Reserve Summary: If the requirement says "lab" well then, you better have the lab. Most biology, physics, chemistry and anatomy/physiology courses have this as part of the course. This is not where you want to cut corners. 9 How About Repeat Courses? Does repeated college courses give a bad impression of a student? It depends on how many and what the trajectory of your studies look like.. Everyone has rough spots but the question is if its a pattern or if its an isolated instance with steady improvement thereafter. - Case Western Reserve Summary: I think the admissions team at A.T Stills said it best in my post about applying to PA school with a low GPA: "We look for an upward trend in grades. We understand that some students have a hard transition to college, or they do not find focus until later. All of your grades will be averaged together, however, we still look for an upward trend. You do want to be somewhat close to the average GPA though. For example, if your total GPA is a 2.8, that is going to be hard to overcome. If it is a 3.0 or higher, with significant other experiences, we can work with that to an extent." 10. Graduate or Undergraduate Courses? Does your program factor graduate level work differently than undergraduate? It does not. - Case Western Reserve Summary: CASPA calculates a GPA for your masters as well as undergrad coursework, schools look at both and take both into account. They are usually factored equally, but the trend (as always) matters. 11. Dropped Courses? Do you take into account if you dropped a class then ended up retaking it later on? Will it essentially effect the application in any way? We do consider if an applicant dropped a class and retook it later.- Case Western Reserve Summary: Of course schools will factor in dropped courses, they are looking for candidates who can handle the rigors of an intensive 2-3 year program. So you need to be careful here. If you drop a course and retake it scoring a 3.7 it isn't going to look so bad. But lots of dropped course without good reason will not reflect highly. Highlights and Summary Community college classes are fine. We know many people do not have the resources to go back and take pre-reqs at four-year schools - Duke University One or two community college courses is fine. The only time it becomes a concern is if ALL of your science or prereqs come from a community college, or there are multiple community colleges you have attended.- A.T. Still University All of the prerequisites have to be completed within 10 years of applying to our program. - Case Western Reserve You can apply with coursework in progress, you would list it as either in progress or planned on the application. - A.T. Still University Our requirement is that all prerequisite courses with labs must be taken "on ground." - Case Western Reserve Make sure to check when credits expire. You may (or may not have to retake courses) We require that the pre-reqs be taken within ten years of your application. - Case Western Reserve The prerequisites do not have a grade minimum, but we calculate an overall prerequisite GPA. If you are admitted to the program and have one outstanding course, you must complete the course by December 31st and earn a grade of B or better. - Yale University Do you have more questions or a helpful suggestion? Let us know in the comments section below, I always reply. The PA Advisor Series The GRE and PA School: The Pre-PA Advisor Series Posted: March 10, 2019 The Pre-PA Advisor Series Welcome to the PA Advisors Series a special series of postswhere PA school applicants like yourself ask the tough questions and admissions directors from top-ranking PA schools provide the answers. Today We Will Discuss the GRE and Your PA School Application Here are some of the questions answered in this [] 12 comments The Pre-PA Advisor Series: Patient Contact Hours and Healthcare Experience Posted: April 2, 2018 The Pre-PA Advisor Series Welcome to the PA Advisors Series a special series of postswhere PA school applicants like yourself ask the tough questions and admissions directors from top-ranking PA schools provide the answers. Today We Will Discuss: Patient Contact Hours and Healthcare Experience Requirements for PA School Here are some of the questions [] 12 comments PA School Prerequisites: Admissions Directors Answer Your Burning Questions Posted: December 18, 2017 As you probably know by now, if you want to get into PA school you must complete the necessary prerequisite coursework. I have discussed this in detail in a previous postPrerequisite Coursework: How to Design the Perfect Pre-PA School Curriculum. Today, we are going a step further by giving you answers to some of the [] 12 comments Applying to PA School with a Low GPA: Admissions Directors Answer Your Questions Posted: August 22, 2017 How to Get Into PA School With a Low GPA PA school administrators from nine top-ranking PA programs answer your questions on how to get into PA school with a low GPA. A low GPA is probably the hardest area to improve. This makes sense it was years in the making, and cant be [] 12 comments View all posts in this seriesApplying to PA School with a Low GPA: Admissions Directors Answer Your QuestionsPA School Prerequisites: Admissions Directors Answer Your Burning QuestionsThe Pre-PA Advisor Series: Patient Contact Hours and Healthcare ExperienceThe GRE and PA School: The Pre-PA Advisor Series You may also like -Applying to PA School with a Low GPA: Admissions Directors Answer Your QuestionsHow to Get Into PA School With a Low GPA PA school administrators from nine top-ranking PA programs answer your questions on how to get into PA school with a low GPA. A low GPA is probably the hardest area to improve. This makes []The GRE and PA School: The Pre-PA Advisor Series The Pre-PA Advisor Series Welcome to the PA Advisors Series - a special series of postswhere PA school applicants like yourself ask the tough questions and admissions directors from top-ranking PA schools provide the []How to Find The Direct Patient Care Experience You Need to Become a Physician Assistant Read on: But you may also be interested in my newest post Healthcare Experience Required for PA School: The Ultimate Guide I could probably summarize this entire blog post with the following sentence: "THE MORE HANDS-ON PATIENT []